Having looked at the expansion of solar
power in rural India in previous posts, it would be useful now to get a broader
picture of the sort of impact rural electrification projects are having globally
and what sort of challenges these are having to cope with in different parts of
the world. Specifically, in this post, I’m going to consider just how effective
rural electrification projects are at promoting sustainability in the long term.
Referring to literature on the co-evolution of technology and sustainability,
Musango and Brent (2011) state that there is no deterministic relationship
between technology and sustainable development, instead remarking that the
relationship is “a complex one where technologies and the sustainable
development sub-systems mutually influence each other, involving many different
factors” (Musango & Brent, 2011: 88). They argue this co-evolutionary approach is necessary when understanding
interactions involving energy technology. Some of the “different factors”
involved in the relationship between energy technology and sustainable
development are shown below in a diagram demonstrating the interrelationships
between energy technology systems and sustainable development sub-systems
(society, economy and environment).
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| Source: Millennium Institute |
More than ever, rural electrification
projects are incorporating renewable energy systems, largely as a result of
rising fossil fuel prices and recent developments in renewable technology. However,
the majority of rural electrification projects are not assessed for
sustainability after installation, and studies of those that have been assessed
emphasize long-term economic and technical challenges (Chakrabarti & Chakrabarti, 2002;
Jenny et al., 2004).
Byrne et al., while discussing the
effectiveness of small-scale renewable energy systems in Western China, suggest
that many such challenges could be overcome by increasing the availability of
microfinance services (Byrne et al., 2007). Urmee et al. point to problems with a solar
home system program in Fiji as originating from a lack of appropriate
maintenance and after sales service, which they argue could be at least partly
resolved by giving locals greater responsibility over the program (Urmee at al., 2009).
However, the common cause of failure in
efforts to bring renewable energy to rural areas that I’m going to discuss in
this post is difficulty in measuring and controlling social factors, leading to
a “mismatch with the people and the project” (Hong & Abe, 2012: 55).
As shown in the diagram above, there are a host of social conditions
influencing each other that comprise the “society” sub-system of sustainable
development. These are often ignored during the development of renewable energy
technologies that are intended to be part of rural electrification programmes. As
I will describe in more detail throughout this post, failing to realize the
significance of social factors often leads to the failure of such projects and
programmes. Social, environmental and economic dimensions are of equal
importance and all relate to each other and to new developments in energy
technology in different and complex ways. Understanding this is crucial to the
long-term success and sustainability of renewable energy projects in rural
areas.
Hong and Abe (2012) recently
completed a sustainability assessment of a rural electrification project using
renewable energy systems (RES) in an off-grid small island in the Philippines. They
investigated the long-term challenges affecting the sustainability of the
Pangan-an Island Solar Electrification Project, looking at five key aspects:
technological, economic, social, environmental and institutional. In their
assessment, Hong and Abe stress the need for a holistic approach when
developing and assessing RES projects, taking into account social as well as
technical and economic aspects. Using multiple correspondence analysis (MCA) of
users’ attributes relating to social conditions (income, education, occupation),
which in turn correspond with patterns of energy consumption, it was determined
that, when the local community has better education and business opportunities,
higher income and higher consumption of electricity usually follow, which consequently
improves the profitability of the solar project.
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| Shore of Pangan-an Island ©flickr/cebuliving |
Addressing this relationship could work to
the benefit of most of RES projects in rural areas. When assessing the
viability of any RES project, long-term sustainability would be better ensured
if the receptiveness of local communities were considered in a broader way,
integrating economic and technical perspectives with social ones. When planning
such projects, this kind of approach would help to establish a better system of
energy provision that complemented and encouraged both economic and social development
according to how these limit and relate to each other in the short and long
term.
Hong and Abe acknowledge the many benefits
of using a solar power system, such as higher available power capacity and access
to safe, clean, renewable energy that contributes to climate change mitigation
efforts. However, they note in their assessment that, although the solar system
demonstrated reasonable cost per kWh when compared to private generator sets,
this didn’t translate into lower cost per household. They also found that the
Pangan-an project was very reliant on external support and required intensive
long-term system maintenance. In Pangan-an, it was found that there were few
electricity-dependent economic activities available for people to be involved
in; fishing was the primary source on income. Developing inclusive programmes
that target rural people and foster the spread of income-generating activities
for which electricity is essential would increase the number of connected users,
reducing cost per connected household.
In an analysis of the viability of an
integrated renewable energy technological system in Lucingweni, a rural village
in South Africa, Brent and Rogers (2010) point to an initial disregard of
non-technical factors as causing the overall system to become unsustainable
(Brent and Rogers, 2010). They argue
a breakdown of trust and understanding between locals and technology developers
was a major problem. Emphasizing cooperation between “people” and “project”
would have vastly helped overall sustainability, as would “a holistic
understanding of energy needs” (p.264). They add that it is crucial such
systems are made to be flexible and able to adapt according to traditional
societal structures. Interestingly, they argue that uncontrolled connections
were a significant issue, leading to a system overload. This suggests that
increases in the number of connected users, although essential in some areas
for the purpose of lowering costs per-household (as in Pangan-an), should
nonetheless be carefully controlled by those managing such RES projects.
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| Mini-grid at Lucingweni © Telecom Techniques |
There is a need for a holistic approach
when developing and assessing RES projects, taking into account social as well
as technical and economic aspects. Hong and Abe identify high costs, capacity
issues and technological complexity as key challenges that the Pangan-an
project had to deal with (Hong & Abe, 2012). It seems that such projects
should strive to create appropriate power capacity according to economic and
social needs and ensure that prices are suitable for the specific community. The
latter could be achieved by encouraging greater energy dependence in the local
community generally. It would also help to stipulate that centralized RES
projects always accompany efforts to improve local education and business
opportunity, perhaps through stimulating the development of local enterprise that
itself builds upon the spread of renewable energy (I discuss this further in my
post “Business, renewables and rural development”).
Hong and Abe make the interesting point
that there is a distinct difference between energy that improves living
conditions and energy that enables productive activities. Economic and social
transformation usually only accompany the latter. Several studies have found
that once rural areas are electrified, the majority of electricity consumed is
used to help improve immediate living conditions, such as lighting, and often
only a small fraction is left for productive activity (Zomers, 2003).
It is important that RES projects take this into consideration when determining
the amount of power that will be available and projects should aim to ensure
that specific patterns of usage in local households and communities are catered
to.
Addressing all these issues would help
bolster the long-term sustainability of renewable energy projects and initiatives
in rural areas.
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